Review of 2016 ARC Guidelines - the errors, contradictions and missed opportunities

Overall, there is not a lot of positives with the new 2016 ARC Guidelines. Some changes, little improvement, the repetition of traditional, out-dated consensus views and the removal of some key procedures based on a narrow, hospital/physician-centric view of the care of casualties i.e. when a casualty ends up in a hospital with a team of clinical staff to care for them, with a list of invasive and definitive procedures to choose from, the care of the first aider can seem irrelevant and not contributing to any positive outcome.  There are also some recommendations that have changed based on the notion that first-aiders are incapable of learning a technique properly and so, “the baby is thrown out with the bath water”.
 
Provided in the following, is a summary of the issues with these new guidelines for your consideration.
 
Guideline 3 - Recognition and First Aid Management of the Unconscious Victim

The ARC appropriately defines unconsciousness as… “Unconsciousness is a state of unrousable, unresponsiveness, where the person is unaware of their surroundings and no purposeful response can be obtained.”  However, the obvious omission here is the absence of “pain” as the ultimate determinate of “response” and therefore consciousness vs unconsciousness.  This omission is carried over into the “Head Injury” guideline were assessment of deteriorating consciousness via GCS or AVPU are not supported for the first aider to use “pain” as a determinate (even in suspected cardiac arrest) of unconsciousness.  “Pain” as a clinical indicator is safely used everywhere in the management and assessment of casualties and patients, except in these BLS guidelines for first aiders.  The ARC continues to rely on the assessment of consciousness as accurately determinable by “gentle shaking of the shoulders and talking to the casualty”, even in determining suspected cardiac arrest.  This is neither effective nor clinically sound.
 
Guideline 4 – Airway
 
In this guideline the ARC makes several contradictory and confusing statements that are not supported by evidence and have remained uncorrected.
 
1 “To clear the airway the mouth should be opened and the head turned slightly downwards to allow any obvious foreign material (e.g. food, vomit, blood and secretions) to drain.”
 
This technique 1 is contradictory to 2 below.  1 uses a technique that (as the casualty is supine) will not make a scrap of difference in “clearing the airway”.  However the technique in 2 “if the airway is obstructed” is the exception for log rolling a casualty.  
 
“The person should not be routinely rolled onto the side to assess airway and breathing—leave them in the position in which they have been found. This has the advantages of simplified teaching, taking less time to perform and avoids movement.

2"The exceptions to this would be where the airway is obstructed with fluid (water or blood) or matter (sand, debris, vomit). Here, the person should be promptly rolled onto their side to clear the airway.”

The other continuing error here is that log rolling for “debris” may be of limited value.  However, the only fluid that makes a difference to outcome in resuscitation is vomitus in the airway i.e. the only indication to log-roll is therefore vomit.  Blood is rarely present in sufficient quantities to create issues, water (salt or fresh) rarely causes significant issues (e.g. delayed pulmonary oedema), and secretions are not a significant issue and like most fluids will disappear across the lung tissue with ventilation.
  
Later in this guideline we come across the statement by the ARC in relation to FBAO in the conscious casualty i.e. “If back blows are unsuccessful the rescuer should perform up to five chest thrusts. To perform chest thrusts, identify the same compression point as for CPR and give up to five chest thrusts. These are similar to chest compressions but sharper and delivered at a slower rate.”
 
In response to this it must be reiterated that the “chest thrust” technique recommended here by the ARC has no clinical evidence, trials, and respiratory studies, nor survivors and is not the “chest thrusts” described in the international literature; or the recommended treatment by ILCOR after the failure of back blows i.e. abdominal thrusts.

Guideline 5 - Breathing
 
Here in this guideline there is a mixture of terms.  The term “rescue breathing” is used as before, however the proper term for this process is also mentioned i.e. “ventilation”.  The term “rescue breathing” is a left-over from the EAR days when the only VENTILATION of a patient was done with one’s mouth. 
 
In the “Mouth to Nose” section the ARC has recommended that this technique be used:
 
• “where the rescuer chooses to do so”
• “where the person’s jaws are tightly clenched”
• “when resuscitating infants and small children”
However in practice, this technique (when used in cases of hypoxic arrest) is most useful when:

• The casualty has a large mouth i.e. smaller rescuer
• The casualty has no teeth

Interestingly, these two categories describe the majority of casualties that are most likely to arrest.
The fact that “No human studies have addressed the safety, effectiveness, or feasibility of using barrier devices to prevent person-to-rescuer contact during rescuer breathing” does not mean this method should not be preferred over direct contact.
 
The new statement that “ANZCOR suggests that those who are trained and willing to give breaths do so for all persons who are unresponsive and not breathing normally” is not supported by the findings of the 2010 ILCOR in that  “In some circumstances the inclusion of ventilations in resuscitation attempts, led to poorer outcomes”.  This reduction in poorer outcome was put down to poor technique (poor airway care and hyperventilation – leading to aspiration) and wasting time in SCA where passive ventilation via compressions was considered adequate in BLS for SCA.
 
Guideline 6 - Compressions

The assumption made in this guideline is that all cardiac arrests happen with more than one rescuer present, that all rescuers are capable of providing adequate chest compressions using a kneeling technique and that there is only one method of effecting compressions. In reality approximately 46% of the adult population (including health professionals) are able to achieve adequate depth of compression on an adult casualty using the kneeling technique. The statement that “ANZCOR suggests performing chest compressions on the lower half of the sternum. In making this recommendation, we place a high value on consistency with current treatment recommendations in the absence of compelling data suggesting the need to change the recommended approach. Place the heel of their hand in the centre of the chest with the other hand on top.” This statement merely means that the ARC has formed an opinion based on internal consensus rather than evidence contrary to their view.  Other techniques, including “pedal compressions” are more effective for rescuers with low strength and/or body mass or those with an injury or disability and who have no assistance available.  Pedal compressions are the only method in fact that can maintain depth of compressions after the first few minutes.
  
The next section of the guidelines in relation to depth and rate seems to make little sense and is full of questionable statements that are in opposition to the international evidence and common sense.
 
“The lower half of the sternum should be depressed approximately Œone third of the depth of the chest with each compression. This equates to more than  5cm in adults, approximately Ž5cm in children and 4 cm in infants. ANZCOR places greater importance on adequate compression depth. Although there is some evidence suggesting detriment with compression depths greater than 6cm, the clinical reality of being able to tell the difference between 5 or 6 cm and adjust compressions accordingly is questionable. Inadequate compression depth is definitely associated with poor outcomes. ANZCOR has elected not to put an upper limit on compression depth as the risk of too shallow compressions outweighs the risk of compressions that are too deep. “
 
The concept of every casualty being compressed approximately 1/3 of the depth of the chest is an ARCism that in the adult casualty is anatomically impossible.  The typical chest depth achieved by compressions on an adult is in the order of 20% and so this assertion is incorrect. Additionally, how in practice would a sole rescuer determine a fraction of 1/3 from a position over the casualty?! The measurements used at  re-inforce the error of 1/3.  The suggested depth on an adult and child here the same (5cm).  Whilst 5cm in children and 4 centimetres in infants do represent approximately 1/3 of the chest depth, anatomically the adult approximation must be wrong or a 3 year old has the same chest depth as a 40 year old.  At  the ARC acknowledges the 6cm depth (used in the UK and Europe for some time), it suggested that a rationale for not increasing their recommendation (which we have established is wrong) is that the new depth would be impossible to estimate.  As stated 1/3 in adults is not only wrong anatomically, but is impossible also to determine by the sole rescuer.   The risk to casualties in  of too shallow compressions is vastly understated.  Except in the very old and frail, the main failure of adequate compressions comes from too shallow compressions rather than too deep compressions.  This is not therefore a rationale for not applying an upper limit.
Later in the revision, the statement on rate below is inserted into the new guidelines:
“ANZCOR acknowledges that compression rates will vary between and within providers and survival rates are optimised at compressions rates of 100-120 compressions per minute. There is some evidence that compressions rates less than 100 or greater than 140 compressions per minute are associated with lower rates of survival.”
 
Here again we see an acknowledgement that international practice has evidence of improved outcomes with a faster rate, but the ARC fails to provide clear guidance around an optimum value i.e. 120 /min.  An aspirational goal would have been helpful here as an appropriate benchmark.
 
Later in the guideline the ARC makes another interesting statement in relation to CPR feedback devices (presumably including those within AED’s) that is contradictory to its own methodology:
“There is no high level evidence that the use of CPR feedback devices during real time CPR improves survival or return of spontaneous circulation. CPR prompt / feedback devices may be considered for clinical use to provide data as part of an overall strategy to improve quality of CPR at a systems level. ANZCOR places a higher value on resource allocation and cost effectiveness than widespread implementation of a technology with uncertain effectiveness during real time CPR. We acknowledge that data provided by CPR feedback devices may benefit other victims as part of a broader quality improvement system.”
 
The absence of “high level evidence” in relation to recommendations made by the ARC is not a pre-requisite for exclusion.  There are many techniques recommended by the ARC that are made on low, no or very poor levels of evidence.  Feedback devices, especially when used by individuals with little or no real exposure to resuscitation, just make good sense.  The question to the ARC from the statement above is if “CPR prompt / feedback devices may be considered for clinical use to provide data as part of an overall strategy to improve quality of CPR at a systems level.” what is the difference for improving systems at the first responder level?  The data is real time and does not need clinical/ academic review to prompt immediate improvement.
Lastly in this guideline is a welcome but again contradictory statement:
“Rib fractures and other injuries are common but acceptable consequences of CPR given the alternative of death. CPR should be initiated for presumed cardiac arrest without concerns of harm to patients not in cardiac arrest. In making this recommendation, ANZCOR places a higher value on the survival benefit of CPR initiated by laypersons for patients in cardiac arrest against the low risk of injury in patients not in cardiac arrest.”
 
Whilst this statement is absolutely true and refreshing, the theory is not universally applied to examples such as FBAO when the consequence of non-relief is death.

Guideline 7 – External Automated Defibrillation in BLS
This guideline sets out the recommendations in relation to the use of AEDs, however the there is a lack of detail in the following leading to an obvious interpretation by some who read and implement this guideline.
 
“If the AED does not have a paediatric mode or paediatric pads then it is reasonable to proceed with standard adult AED pads.”
 
This would suggest that it is acceptable to not purchase a defibrillator with a paediatric switch or purchase paediatric pads, because adult pads can be routinely substituted.  The recommendation should read “In cases of emergency, where the AED available is not fitted with a paediatric switch or paediatric pads, the adult pads can be used.  The substitution of adult pads for paediatric pads is not a recommended strategy for the management of casualties in cardiac arrest.  ANZCOR recommends that the type of defibrillator available and the pads stored in the machine should reflect the risk associated with the AED’s location and intended use.”
 
9.1.1 – Principle of Controlling Bleeding for First Aiders.
This guideline’s recommendation changes are a little puzzling. Whilst there may be no evidence that elevation of a bleeding part will control severe bleeding, it is extremely doubtful that there is no evidence that as a self-care measure, for instance, in the management of minor bleeding that this technique is effective.  This is also true for pressure points.
 
“There is no evidence that elevation of a bleeding part aids control of bleeding and there is the potential to cause more pain or injury.”
 
Certainly in the face of severe or life-threatening haemorrhage, elevation may have little use, however the “potential to cause more pain and injury” is far more from tourniquets and the like, so this rationale is not particularly valid. This guideline change assumes that all bleeding is haemorrhagic and severe.

9.1.4  Head Injury
The head injury guideline unfortunately makes no distinction between, for example, a facial laceration/bruise and a head (brain injury).  The notion that all casualties with wounds to the face or head have a “brain injury” and need to be “assessed” in hospital is not supported by the evidence and is totally unworkable (particularly in sports).  This would mean, for example, the first time a boxer was hit in the first seconds of the first round he/she needs to be taken to hospital.
“A brain injury should be suspected if the victim has a reported or witnessed injury, has signs of injury to the head or face such as bruises or bleeding, or is found in a confused or unconscious state. A victim may have a brain injury without external signs of injury to the head or face. Serious problems may not be obvious for several hours after the initial injury.”
 
 Undetected brain injuries are not common and can occur even after assessment in a hospital.  It would be expected that considering the resource implications of such a recommendation, this would be supported by a high level of evidence.  Whilst the Glasgow Coma Score is not well understood or implemented by first aiders (particularly when faced with a young child or mute), and should not be used as an absolute determinate of head injury; surely any altered LOC at or after an injury (or a high risk event), is a stronger indication of concern requiring hospitalisation.
 
There is also no mention in this guideline of the higher likelihood of a neck injury with brain injury.
 
9.1.6  Spinal Injury
 
Of the guideline changes, the changes to this guideline are obviously the recommendation of hospital-based trauma physicians with little appreciation for the circumstances and challenges faced by first-aiders. There is also a failure in this guideline to take the opportunity to improve the techniques and methods of spinal care pre-hospital and provide what is actually missing from the SR Cervical collar debate, standards for proper training in the effective application of collars and improved methods.  The statement in the new guidelines below appears to be little more than an opinion based on, at best, anecdotal evidence of the authors.
 
“The use of SR (cervical collars) by first aid providers is not recommended.”  Although this is listed as a weak recommendation with low quality evidence. 

The evidences used by the ARC are:

Hauswald M, Hsu M, Stockoff C: Maximizing Comfort and Minimizing Ischemia: A Comparison of Four methods of Spinal Immobilization. Pre-hospital Emergency Care. 2000; 4: 250-252 - which concluded that SR cervical collar application in the pre-hospital setting is prudent and the primary source of morbidity was the transport of victims on hard backboards.  It also suggested that additional padding could vastly improve comfort and fitting issues. Some unsupported discussion/speculation in the research has also been used by the ARC as evidence. 

Hood N, Considine J: Spinal Immobilisation in Pre-hospital and Emergency Care: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Australasian Emergency Nursing Journal 2015; 18(3):118-137 - which found that there was a balance of fair and poor (no good studies with good quality evidence) studies for and against pre-hospital spinal immobilisation.

"There are no published high-level studies that assess the efficacy of spinal immobilisation in the pre-hospital and emergency care settings. Almost all of the current evidence related to spinal immobilisation is extrapolated data, mostly from healthy volunteers. There were no studies that showed spinal immobilisation improved neurological outcomes as all studies using neurological outcome as an endpoint were neutral due to high mortality rates from other causes (mostly gunshot wounds)...Protocols that recommend application of spinal immobilisation should consider the risk vs benefits. Prospective studies of patients at risk of, or with actual spinal injuries, are needed using real pre-hospital or clinical environments."
 
It also reinforced that the Canadian C-Spine Rule has 100% sensitivity and 42.5% specificity which should be considered as an indicator for cervical spine immobilisation in the pre-hospital setting (see also Nexus).  

Hauswald M, Ong G, Tandberg D, Omar Z: Out-of-hospital Spinal immobilization: Its Effect on Neurologic Injury. Academic Emergency Medicine. 1998; vol5, 3: 214-219 - which did not show a causation, was a relatively small sample and acknowledged that the observation that the non-immobilised group had less neurological injury could have been related to a difference in other more serious associated injuries (which was not part of the research corrections in data).

Zideman, D. A., Singletary, E. M., De Buck, E.,et al. (2015). Part 9: First aid: 2015 International Consensus on First Aid Science with Treatment Recommendations. Resuscitation, 95, e225. - 
which acknowledged that "more evidence is needed on manual stabilization (using hands/knees to restrict motion), trauma patients in the pre-hospital setting, high-risk versus low-risk patients, other forms of physical cervical spinal stabilization, and implementation and education. A review of the adverse effects as a consequence of application of a cervical collar could be interesting in the future."
Although not recommending SR cervical collars in first aid, this was based on poor training and the risk criteria used in determining the need for a cervical collar; two elements that could be addressed directly. 

The application of SR Cervical Collars is an interim emergency measure until more effective means are available.  The suggestion that all the first aider needs to do is to have someone stabilise the head during treatment and transport, again neglects to recognise that the movement, extrication and transport of casualties is often required to meet emergency services or remove them from danger and that not all first aiders will have a team around them (as in an ED) to be able to sacrifice one person to “look after the stabilisation of the head and neck”.  
 
The rationale that unnecessary movement is caused by the “sizing and fitting of collars” and that other complications “may” occur (including increased intra-cranial pressure) just means that some direction may be helpful for the proper training in the safe fitting and sizing of collars (a task that many clinicians do not understand well).  This is another example of “the baby out with the bath water”.  The other missed opportunity in this guideline is a recommendation around head immobilisation boards with specific padding, as a preferred adjunct rather than the reliance on cervical collars.
 
9.2.3   Shock

The definition and management of shock by the first aider has always created much confusion in the non-clinical individual. For the most part, without a clear understanding, shock is assumed by the first aider in every emergency and is confused frequently with “emotional distress”. What are lacking in this guideline are changes to clarify the position and assist in determining likelihood and more specific deferential diagnosis.
“For individuals with shock who are in the supine position and with no evidence of trauma, the use of PLR (passive leg raise) may provide a transient (less than 7 minutes) improvement.”

“The clinical significance of this transient improvement is uncertain; however, no study reported adverse effects due to PLR. Because improvement with PLR is brief and its clinical significance uncertain, ANZCOR recommends the supine position without passive leg raising for victims of shock”
 
The new statements above in the guideline fail to recognise 4 essential factors in the first aid management of patients.

1. The guideline assumes that a non-clinician can determine between “shock” and syncope from other causes.  PLR is a reasonable differential test for syncope.
2. A 7 minute improvement in a true “shock victim” is in fact when the “first aider” is working, that is why they call it “first aid”.
3. The first aider does not have access to more definitive means of managing shock than PLR.  Certainly compared to plasma expanders PLR may seem ineffective, however in the absence of an alternative, there is also no evidence quoted that it does any harm just 7 minutes of improvement.
4. The fact that “no study reported adverse effects due to PLR” is a curious reason to not recommend it.  What more evidence is required other that a short term positive effect and no adverse effect?  This does not make the “significance uncertain”.

 
9.2.5   First Aid for Asthma

The new revision for the management of asthma has not corrected a significant failing of the old guideline; in that there is still no trigger for calling an Ambulance without first giving the “up to 6 puffs and wait 4-6 minutes then give another 4-6 puffs”.  A casualty in extremis, who is hyper-inflated, will receive no benefit from inhaled broncho-dilators or the accumulated wait time of more than 6 minutes. 
There is also no acknowledgement of techniques such as “sustained lateral expiratory chest thrusts” in the management of severe asthma.  This technique, in the absence of adrenaline, can mean the difference between a dead asthmatic and a treatable one.  This technique has good evidence and has been re-instated in all Ambulance protocols. See Allan, J., Williams, B., & Fallows, B. (2007). Investigating the Benefits of Out-of-Hospital External Chest Compression. Australasian Journal of Paramedicine, 5(3). Retrieved from http://ro.ecu.edu.au/jephc/vol5/iss3/2​

10.4   Use of Oxygen in Emergencies

The changes to use of oxygen in emergencies have changed significantly after the research done by the UK Anaesthetics Society several years ago.  Australia is now playing a bit of catch up regarding the use of oxygen.  Unfortunately, there are some disparities and anomalies in the guidelines between the recommendations for ALS vs BLS.  Whilst the ARC is aware of these anomalies, no changes have been made to address these issues.  For example, the guideline states:
“When bag-valve-mask oxygen resuscitation is used by trained but occasional operators, a minimum of two trained rescuers are required to provide ventilation for a non-breathing victim.”
 
However many ALS operators would be considered “occasional” and there is no stipulation that they “are required” to use two operators.  Surely the standard should be competence in one person ventilation (after all first aiders do not travel in groups for the most part) and on failure of this, then two-person (if available) delivery.

Conclusion
In reviewing the summary of changes in the 2016 ANZCOR Guidelines, it is apparent to ARAN that they have fallen short of their potential to promote improvement in casualty outcomes and better equip first aiders to provide effective, evidenced-based foundations to their care.  The individual guidelines are inconsistent and contradictory in both terminology and the use of evidence on which is based recommendations and consensus view.   It is apparent that many authors have controlled the review of individual sections, without a consistent approach to the purpose, implications and evidence required to inform consensus view over scientific literature and clinical findings.  This misuse of evidence-based review leads to therapeutic nihilism (the belief that there is no objective basis for truth) in the absence of evidence from randomized trials.

Historically, highlighting issues such as these to the ARC and/or the submission of constructive, evidenced suggestions are met with silence.  This is followed by complete dismissal (without explanation, discussion or the provision of counter evidence).  This must suggest that to the observer, that the methodology of review and evidence used by the ARC is flawed, partisan and conceited.  This unfortunately means that there is no current, effective means of influencing change in the ARC published guidelines in Australia regardless of one’s evidence and/or clinical standing (outside of its internal structure) and thus no peer review. 

​ARAN suggests that individuals (both clinical and non-clinical) closely review the new ANZCOR guidelines for themselves to determine their consistency and efficacy and then independently decide if the ARC Guidelines (opinions as published) are suitable and relevant for their individual situation.  


The Dichotomy in the Australian Resuscitation Council 
With a catchphrase of “Any attempt at resuscitation is better than no attempt”  but aims and objectives  that seek to control standardisation in Australia and New Zealand; how committed is the Australian Resuscitation Council to better outcomes as opposed to control over resuscitation practice and teaching? 

This dichotomy has perhaps hamstrung improvements in OHCA outcomes in Australia for years and seen us languishing behind the rest of the world.  The fundamental belief that must be assumed, (in order to enable these opposing concepts to co-exist), is that the ARC guidelines and consensus opinion is unquestionably “right”, at all times.  It is quite evident that the stated aim in regard to “uniformity and standardisation” is the overriding philosophy, the driver of actions and that any notion of “any resuscitation attempt be better than none” only (and will forever only) refer to attempts that are made in conforming to ARC sanctioned, standardised recommendations.

“Aim:  Foster and co-ordinate the practice and teaching of resuscitation promote uniformity and standardisation of resuscitation; act as a voluntary co-ordinating body” – ANZCOR Aims and Objectives.
In order to claim this infallibility, the ARC uses its objectives to give the appearance that its consensus opinion is the only correct interpretation of current research and evidence, restricts any input into resuscitation practice to the members of its own organisation, prosecutes (with apparent impunity) any view or solution that has not originated from its own deliberations and then  the ARC fails to exercise due diligence to ensure recommendations are show the expected efficacy when applied i.e. there is a lack of accountability despite a demand for conformity.  This methodology may be acceptable in a non-scientific environment but merely acts as a handbrake on genuine improvements in survival. That aside, if this methodology was effective at achieving best practice and results, this would be in evidence in outcome data, however this is not the case in Australia where the things measured don’t show a significant improvement over other approaches and those things not measured we will never know if recommendations result in help or harm.

How are the objectives used and misused to promote conformity and standardisation over ultimate improvement.  

• Provide a forum for discussion of all aspects of resuscitation – the forum for discussion is only internal i.e. within the organisation or affiliates.  As the organisation is overseen by clinicians, there are many subjects that are not open to discussion or meaningful input from even the lower levels of their own organisation.  No discussion is encouraged with anyone outside the organisation (not affiliated) and the strategy for dealing with any outside input is not to acknowledge or respond to any communication.  There is no meaningful consultation outside its own network.
• Foster interest in, and promulgate information regarding resuscitation- whilst the ARC, in a limited and controlled way, spreads information regarding resuscitation., it is very careful to make the distinction between promotion for the overall good of the community and promotion of its own consensus view on resuscitation; the latter being the given priority.  This means that internationally proven strategies and recommendations will never be promoted by the ARC if they somehow conflict with its own consensus view.
•  
• Gather and collate scientific information regarding resuscitation techniques; to recommend a modification of those techniques where appropriate on the basis of such information – interestingly, “information” as mentioned here would never be the basis for change by the ARC.  Rather, it maintains that change will only happen if it is based on “evidence” rather than “information”.  The exception to this rule is when a technique without evidence is generated from within the ARC, and then the rules of evidence are suspended to allow information to have the same rigour.
• Promote simplicity and uniformity in techniques and terminology regarding resuscitation – whilst this may be the intent, the imperative for uniformity will always be the priority over simplicity in ARC commendations.  The other aspect to this objective is the reality that simplicity does not automatically mean efficacy. 
• Provide an advisory and resource service regarding techniques, equipment, teaching methods and teaching aids- this objective is part of the formulation and publication of its recommendations.  One would therefore doubt that the ARC has no capacity (due to the imperative of maintaining its “proven” position ) to provide advice outside its internally accepted position, even if the particular circumstance is not adequately addressed by existing recommendations or where there is evidence that the technique or teaching method is flawed and ineffective.
• Foster research into methods of teaching and practice of resuscitation- this objective is extremely limited in its scope.  As the organisation self-determines which “research” or “evidence” or” information” is valid to affect change, the research encouraged is that which supports the current position of the organisation.  Anything with a contrary finding is deemed of insufficient rigour to influence change.
• Pursue the development of standards for training- there is no doubt that one of the prime ways the ARC maintains its primary imperative of conformity with its position is in the stranglehold it has on standards of training in Australia.  Without any government authority, the ARC only has such “authority” that is given to it by other government and industry organisations in assenting to its recommendations as a de-facto standard for training.  This position has remained unchallenged for many years, under the assumption that ARC recommendations represent the benchmark.  Not surprisingly, any challenge to the status of the recommendations as not representing “best practice” in training are met with  a vehement defence, not directly, but by using political and sector influence to  stifle a threat to conformity, even if alternatives provide better outcomes.
• Establish regular communications with other bodies with similar objectives, both in Australia and overseas – this objective is simply disingenuous.  Having “similar objectives” is not the criteria used by the ARC to determine communication.  Rather, the ARC is in communication with bodies that support its “authority” and veracity of its recommendations.  The ARC will not engage in any communication or initiatives with any organisation or individual that is not fully supportive of its unquestioned authority, regardless of community benefit.
• Consider and advise on the means of preventing circumstances in which resuscitation may become necessary- this objective is shared by many organisation involved in resuscitation, both in Australia and internationally.  The dichotomy in the ARC is further exemplified by its approach to this objective.   Identifying the “means of preventing circumstances….”, is an important function and many bodies have implemented strategies that have produced improvements in outcomes, however the difference with the ARC is that the only remedies it will recommend for implementation are those that it has dictated as in harmony with its own consensus and therefore advice is limited to advice that consolidates its position and control i.e. conformity.
•  
• Do all such acts and things as are incidental, or subsidiary to all or any of the above objectives- to defend their position (of de-facto authority rather than the provision of evidenced recommendations), the ARC will apparently use any means, including the use of libel.

To meet these objectives the ARC states that it:
Develops and publishes Guidelines- this is a fundamental role of any resuscitation body.  In reality, guidelines cannot be current at all times (unless they are constantly reviewed).  Whilst a single set of guidelines may simplify practice, the assumption that must be made is that this solitary is both applicable in all circumstances and is an accurate distillation of international consensus and more importantly, evidence. With no review of outcomes from recommendations and no accountability for sub-standard recommendations; one guideline is in fact as good as any other guideline.  However, one only has to produce an alternative guideline to experience the veracity in which the ARC defends its own guidelines as the only interpretation of evidence and international consensus with only its own consensus as the proof.  While the defence may be the reliance on ILCOR recommendations, the ARC has demonstrated on more than one occasion that it is willing to go against international recommendations if its own local consensus has another opinion.

1. Reviews and updates guidelines by consultation with member bodies and other experts- as already outlined any consultation is extremely selective and rooted in nepotism.  Consultation is only effective if the input from those consulted has a role in forming or reforming the subject and its content or direction.  If we look back at “consultation” phases of guidelines (which do not include those outside ARC affiliated bodies) contributors would be hard pressed to find a single submission that has resulted in any (even minute) change to a draft or proposal.
2. Reviews world literature and research in resuscitation- if the reliance is on local consensus in the interpretation of international research i.e. what is commonly referred to as Level 4 evidence or expert opinion; then the validity of any recommendation is purely subjective and rigour only comes from ones opinion of the relevant “expert” making the recommendation.  Reviews of world literature (especially where there are conflicting or weak results) can result in differing views on remedies, solutions and recommendations.  Each of these may be equally as valid, however the stance of the ARC is that only their interpretation is valid (even if contrary to international consensus on evidence) and that no-one can question this or suggest another pathway.  This approach is unscientific and experience has shown research discussion used by the ARC in place of research outcomes and recommendations as justification for a recommendation view.  As the ultimate opinion that influences change within the ARC is solely that of medical practitioners, it is also not surprising that (particularly in BLS practice) recommendations reflect a hospital-centric view and world “evidence” is used in a selective and perverse manner as a justification to de-value pre-hospital measures.
3. Act as a resource for anyone wanting authoritative material on resuscitation- as already established, the underlying requirement for acting as an “authority” is that the one seeking guidance must view the material and recommendations produced as being accurate and evidence-based practice.  “Authoritative material” also assumes that anything not produced by the ARC lacks this “authority” and is therefore inferior and not evidence-based.   This position is both arrogant and an example of poor governance.  Opinion where there is no strong and definitive evidence cannot be elevated to a status of authoritative, regardless of the self-belief of the individuals formulating this opinion.

What is the answer to this dichotomy? Is there in fact any solution?  How did this position develop from good and noble intentions?  Unfortunately, for the author and reader, this situation will not change while there is no insight.   The disappointing element to this situation is not that individuals and organisations with real and practical solutions to improving outcomes in OHCA, are deliberately, systematically and clandestinely subverted for political gain (including the use of libel); but when given the choice between change that is inspired by external factors that have and will improve survival and maintaining “conformity” and “control” over recommendations, the ARC will consistently choose the later.
There are no less than nine areas where the ARC can improve its structure and practices to realise the spirit of its aims and objectives rather than what it has become: 

1. Improved governance – a weakness and misdirected governance is at the root of the issues identified.  Elements of governance that need to be addressed include:
   • Use of evidence and opinion – this has become clouded and political.
     • This includes redefining LOE to reflect an accurate representation of consensus vs. evidence.
     • Codes of conduct around the misuse of research or weighting of personal opinion over real evidence.
   • Communication dysfunction – interaction with other organisations and individuals is dysfunctional at best and toxic at worst.  This situation does not contribute to the ARC’s reputation in a positive way.
   • Addressing questionable practices in response to criticism – there is an inability to constructively respond to valid criticism other than silence or personal attacks.  Strong governance would insist on a more constructive methodology. 
   • Effective feedback and complaints management processes and accountabilities – at present there are no recognised processes in place to deal with feedback and there is no accountability for actions or no actions.
   • Transparency  
   • A move from a “control of standardisation” approach to a “community benefit” approach 
2. Broader and meaningful consultation – internal and individual opinion (especially where evidence is weak, non-existent or conjectured) does not necessarily result in the best outcome.
3. Review of the consequences of recommendations – recommendations, especially when based on local consensus need to be more closely monitored for efficacy in practice.
4. User compatibility testing of recommendations (prior to release) – like most systems, any guidelines need to be usable by the end-user (not just the authors).
5. Increased accountability for recommendations – without accountability for errors, recommendations can be merely experimental with no monitoring; this is poor scientific methodology.
6. Government representation/ oversight – one cannot help but feel that a voluntary body that uses a group of individuals to make guidelines that areas of government and industry are forced to follow, show have some sort of government representation and/or oversight.  This could and should also lead to funding opportunities.  The notion of independence from political influence is the argument against this move; it could be easily argued that there exists more political influence from individuals and affiliates with agenda within the ARC itself.
7. Innovation focus – what has been lost in the ARC in a quest for conformity is the ability to embrace innovation in a meaningful way.
8. Efficacy rather than consensus – in the real world consensus is not a replacement for evidence or efficacy.  This is regardless of whom the consensus is developed by.  The notion of unquestionable consensus is a dangerous and unscientific approach, especially to resuscitation practice.  Having witnessed first-hand at least the ARC process at state level; there is perhaps more rigour and less personal bias at an industrial union meeting. One can only assume that this behaviour is replicated at all levels of the organisation and would explain the behaviours of the current state and national bodies. Presently, some elements of ARC practice are contrary to international consensus and so local consensus has supplanted all other evidence without any proof of efficacy.
9. Constant review methodology (in line with ILCOR) rather than structured and inflexible cycles -  As ILCOR has realised that the irregular review of guidelines does not address the rapidly changing area of guideline development in resuscitation, the ARC needs also needs to move to a better methodology and process for review. 

Here in lies the paradox; the ARC is currently unable to recognise any shortcomings in its governance, processes or attitudes.  In order to make changes, the organisation must have the insight to be able to maturely consider and be able to self-reflect.  The likely outcome, given past behaviours, is that this paper will be summarily dismissed internally and any actions will be confined to sanctioned silence or personally directed vitriol. 
As consumers of the guidelines and consensus opinions of the ARC (as Government and industry are also); we should demand that changes are made to the organisation if it is to continue to claim to be the “authority” on resuscitation practice in Australia and New Zealand.  This includes meaningful and significant changes to governance structures, processes and focus.
Resuscitation outcomes are the concern of many individuals and organisations across the community, health and government.  No one group has a monopoly on evidence, ideas and best practice.  Particularly in Australia, where government (State and Federal) have no interest in improving OHCA survival rates outside their statutory obligations in the provision of ambulance and hospital services; it is incumbent on voluntary, not-for-profit organisations and individuals to all work toward the common goal of improving survival rates.


Critical Review
ARC Document – A Guide to AEDs July 2017
Although somewhat belated, it is good to see the ARC releasing a statement on this topic.  Although this is not an original work (by its own admission), much has been written on this topic overseas and in Australia although the ARC has chosen in this case not to utilise or acknowledge any of the good work already done here (including the books such as  “Back in a Heart Beat”, a National AED Standard and various other publications.).

• No reference to best practice target for maximum survival if first shock delivered within 3 minutes. Rather throughout the document it is suggested this may be 5 minutes or 4 minutes)
• Point 11 – the availability PADs is not widespread and not of sufficient density to make a significant difference in survival rates.  There are no national or state laws/legislation (even in “high-risk” workplaces for the installation of AEDs.  Installation is reliant of benevolence or voluntarily standards.

There is a National Standard for AED’s that was developed outside the ARC (after they refused to be involved) but then forced it to be watered down afterwards.  This Standard is not referred to in the document but is an important element in any consideration of AEDs in Australia. (see AED Guidelines - AEDDR 1410).

1. Introduction
   1. Paragraph 2 – “AEDs are now widely available”. This statement may be true in the source documents (UK – where the NHS funds community AEDs), but not Australia. This is the fundamental issue with pre-ambulance resuscitation. Interestingly, the ARC has refused to be involved in initiatives to change laws, legislations or codes to improve AED density and spread.
2. Background
   1. Paragraph 1 – Whilst it is accepted that <10% survive cardiac arrest, the use of this statistic without explaining its context (i.e. ROSC, survival to hospital, survival to discharge) is misleading.
   2. Paragraph 3 – It would be useful to extrapolate the deterioration of survival over time here i.e. 8-9 mins and indicate that 80-85% of Adults will develop a “shockable rhythm in the first 8-9 minutes.
3. The AED
   1. Paragraph 2 – Information missing here is that only 50% of first AED analysis wil indicate a “shockable” event but 80-85% of Adult victims will develop a shockable” rhythm in the first 8-9 minutes. Without this information the expectation of an AED is exaggerated.
   2. Paragraph 6 – Bystander “rescue breaths” in SCA pre-ambulance, have not shown to improve survival and with an unprotected airway, significantly decrease survival due to aspiration and the continual and unnecessary pauses to compressions (with already result in passive ventilation of 300-400ml of TV in an Adult). The term “rescue breaths” is largely redundant and misguided as we should not promote “mouth to” methods (as the ARD term suggests) but rather promote safe “ventilation” when required i.e. unwitnessed SCA and hypoxic arrests.
4. AED Programs
   1. Paragraph 1 – In large public places, the use of AEDs by “staff only” rather than as PADs by a bystander have not shown these outcomes.  It is the availability of limited AEDs to bystanders that improves time to first shock.
   2. Paragraph 2 – Here again we see a confused and misleading reference to “survival rate” that contradicts previous statements and does not differentiate between ROSC, survival to hospital or survival to discharge.
5. Establishing an AED program or PAD scheme
   1. Paragraph 1(d) – There are no state or national WHS codes that require an AED in a workplace, even if the workplace has been designated “high risk”. State and Federal WHS regulators are primarily concerned with reducing the impost on businesses (a political imperative) than the safety and welfare of workers.  The ARC has not supported any initiative to change this position.
   2. Paragraph 1(e) – Civil Law “duty of care” is open to interpretation in this regard.  Without explicit legislation regarding the installation of AEDs any business can choose to opt out of its responsibility.
   3. Paragraph 2 – ARAN recently submitted a detailed proposal to change the National Construction Code (NCC) and related Building and Construction Code (BCC) in relation to AED as part of building compliance (based-on purpose).  This document specified the types of businesses and facilities that would benefit from AEDs and the specifications for access and control.  Whilst many non-profit organisations involved in OHCA survival supported the submission, the ARC refused to consider, support or independently lodge the application.
6. Legal Issues
7. Working with the Ambulance service
   1. Paragraph 1 – Ambulance services are not universally good resources for advice on AED or CPR training.  While some services have specific programs; in relation to CPR/AED training, state services can only recommend either  reference to publically accessible resources e.g. Yellow Pages or will refer callers to larger (brand name) providers, contrary to anti-competitive legislation. 
8. AEDs in the Workplace
   1. The evidence quoted is not applicable to the Australian setting as we do not have any laws or regulations in WHS that require AEDs in a workplace. This means our AED to business ratio is much poorer than the examples quoted.  In Australia, less than 25% of general practices have AEDs, because there is no current requirement for them to have one.  Promotion of AEDs in the workplace will have little traction until legislations and regulation support their installation.
9. AEDs in Schools
   1. The information in this section uses US data of an undefined cohort (where screening for congenital heart defects is carried out prior to many sports).  ARAN produced a handbook for schools to provide information, risk assessment tools and the rationale for AEDs in schools. While NSW remains the only State/Territory that does not encourage AEDs in schools, the ARC has chosen to remain silent on this issue. It is agreed (as proven in other countries) that education of school children in the importance of resuscitation (including defibrillation using an AED) is a very effective method for ensuring the next generations are willing and able to assist when required. In other countries CPR (including use of AEDs) is mandatory in schools.  In Australia, these are optional.
10. Obtaining an AED
    1. The notion that state ambulance services are a reference source for AED purchase advice (in regard to features and requirements) is not the reality.  Ambulance services vary rarely have any experience or detailed knowledge of AEDs and cannot (due to anti-competitive legislation) recommend one unit over another.
11. Arranging training for responders
    1. Paragraph 2 – The perpetuation of the myth that “Australian Red Cross”, “St John Ambulance” and “Life-Saving Victoria” (not sure why Victoria, should read Life Saving Australia) are the “best” providers of training is erroneous and misleading. Under the ASQA framework all industry qualifications are equal.  It should be noted that the organisations mentioned are significant and influential members of the ARC and thus this notation is a clear conflict of interest.
    2. It should be noted that rudimentary training in the use of an AED in a cardiac arrest does not prepare the individual for the stress, emotional damage and psychological impact of attending a cardiac arrest. As this document is obviously prepared by person/s with a Victorian state emphasis, it has been written with the GOODSAM initiative in mind, where anyone with a rudimentary understanding of an AED is encouraged to respond to suspected cardiac arrest events in the community via notification by a phone app. While notionally a good idea, there are several issues not addressed adequately with this initiative, including: legal issues in the commandeering of another’s property, unlawful entry, liability for costs of consumables (pads and/or batteries) and psychological implications on non-professionals attending cardiac arrest events.
12. Installing the AED
    1. The specifications for locating, installing and maintenance (including recording on a national register) are all set out in the national code (AED Guidelines - AEDDR 1410) a document not referenced in the ARC document and a resources that the ARC chose not to support or contribute to. Further the requirements and specifications for AEDs in building was detailed in the ARAN proposal to change the NCC and BCC, a document that the ARC chose not to support or contribute to.
    2. The signage referred to in the document is no longer accepted as best practice. After a use focused study conducted in the UK, revised signage is now recommended over the ARC offerings. (see https://www.resus.org.uk/defibrillators/standard-sign-for-aeds/) as it is easier for untrained responders to understand.
13. Maintenance
    1. Not all AEDs have separate pad and battery expiry dates and some need these two consumable to be replaced after each use.  Skin preparation/PPE kits are not a requirement of AED supply (because there is no standard in Australia).  Without this kit, the AED pads may be ineffective, but most defibrillators do not come with this essential feature and users are largely unaware of the necessary contents.  The document should have informed potential owners/users of this information.
    2. The information in this section is inconsistent.  AEDs these days do their own daily, weekly and monthly checks and alert if maintenance is required (and even what maintenance is required).  To then recommend that the units are checked daily in all circumstances is unnecessary.  The nature of this “check” is not specified.  The only requirement is that there is no alarm and the pads are in date. If those responsible do a “self-test” each day, this drains the defibrillator battery capacity and results in premature failure.  This distinction is not addressed.
14. Event reporting and debriefing
    1. Ambulance services do not have the pre-requisite adaptors and software to interface with all AEDs in operation.
    2. Debriefing is not seen as the responsibility or scope of state ambulance services for bystanders involved in a cardiac arrest event.  It would be better to reference state-based publicly accessible services in this area.